Subordinators

Subordinator values (slot 2c):

┌────────────────────────────┬─────┐  
│ Relative clause            │ aı  │  
│ Plain content clause       │ ao  │  
│ Polarity clause            │ ea  │  
│ Unary template clause      │ oı  │  
│ Binary Template Clause     │ oa  │  
│ Ternary Template Clause    │ eʼe │  
│ Quaternary Template Clause │ oʼo │  
└────────────────────────────┴─────┘

These morphemes occupy the same slot as Inner Cases (slot 2c), but are not true Cases. They turn the words which bear them into subordinated verbs, words that have the special syntactic effect of opening a whole subordinate clause (which may be exited for returning to the outer clause by using an appropriate Anchoring proclitic; see the section Anchoring Slot).

A clause is a syntactic structure made of a verb possibly accompanied by one or several complements, be them core argument complements, or circumstantial adjuncts (e.g. indication of time, place, manner, cause…). All sentences contain at least one clause, the root clause, hosting the root verb, which is the only finite verb in Nahaıwa. A sentence may optionally contain subordinate clauses, potentially nested into one another; subordinate clauses may assume a variety of different functions, they may act as nominal arguments for verbs (as in the English ⟪I know that [you know]⟫), or as attributives attaching to a noun (⟪I saw the man [whom you saw]⟫), or as adverbials adding circumstantial information (⟪I stayed home because [it rained all day]⟫).

In Nahaıwa, the subordinate verbs are a hybrid part of speech: from the point of view of the interior of the subordinate clause they open, they act like normal verbs; but from the point of view of the outside of the subclause, they can assume any function a normal contentive word can assume, depending on the role/case consonantal inflection which they bear.

Even if all the different morphemes shown in the table above cause the opening of a subordinate clause, they differ in what kind of clause is created. The different types are detailed one by one in the following sections.

In addition to occurring in slot 2c, Subordinators may also occur as extensional prefixes, with a glottal stop ⟪ʼ⟫ prefixed to their vocalic form (for example, ⟪-ʼao-⟫ for the plain content clause subordinator).

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are clauses that refer to one of the participants (called the ‘antecedant’) mentioned within the clause and represented by the ‘resumptive pronoun’ (RSM in glosses), whose whose extensional form is ⟪-t◈-⟫; the relative clause describes its antecedent, and the whole relative clause's referent is the antecedent itself.
Nahaıwa ‘nouns’, such as ⟪takóyu⟫ “a dog”, can be regarded as actually be reduced relative clauses, where the inner case affix (here ⟪-a-⟫) acts as a vestigial relative pronoun inflecting for case. All such ‘nouns’ can be expanded to full-fledged relative clauses using the subordinator ⟪-aı-⟫, and a resumtive pronominal bearing the same case vowel as the original noun's inner case:

  • ⟪takóyu⟫ ↦ ⟪taıtakóyu⟫
    t-aı-ta-kóyu
    NTR-REL-RSM:NTR-is_dog
    One which (it) is a dog.
  • ⟪tıñú⟫ ↦ ⟪taıtıñú⟫
    t-aı-tı-ñú
    NTR-REL-RSM:ERG-eat
    One which (it) eats.
  • ⟪tuñú⟫ ↦ ⟪taıtuñú⟫
    t-aı-tu-ñú
    NTR-REL-RSM:ERG-eat
    One which (something) eats it; one which is eaten.

However, unlike simple nouns, nominal relative clauses allow a greater complexity in the description of the referent, allowing a full clause, made of a verb and zero or more complements, to be used as the descriptor:

  • taıtuñú cacʰakóyu
    t-  aı= [ tu-     ñú  c-  a-   cʰa-kóyu ]
    NTR-REL=[ RSM:ACC-eat ERG-NTRᵢ-DEF-dog  ]
    One which [the dog ate it].

  • taıłı̋ł sakoŋqʼaqʰáƛʰï
    t-  aı= [ łı̋ł s-  a-   to-     ŋqʼa-   qʰáƛʰï
    NTR-REL=[ mud LOC-NTRᵢ-RSM:EXT-part_of-fur
    One which [there's mud on their fur]; one with mud on their fur.

  • taınıtʰú kaokıtunčáwa
    t-  aı= [ nı-   tʰú
    NTR-REL=[ 1:ERG-deem_true
    k-  ao=[  kı-   tu-     nčáwa       ] ]
    ACC-DCS=[ 2:ERG-RSM:ACC-acquitained ] ]
    One which [I expect that [you are acquitained with (them)]].

Like simple nouns, the consonantal Outer Case or Role of relative clauses shows the role it plays as a whole within the outside clause:

  • Oθınepá kaıraoncʰetupá caqaséwa.
    o=      θı-     ne-   pá
    ASR;RPT=EXO:ERG-1:DAT-say
    k-  aı= rao-ncʰe-       tu-     pá
    ACC-REL=RET-ERG_PRO:DAT-RSM:ACC-say
    c-  a-   qa-                      séwa
    ERG-NTRᵢ-named_after_property:NTR-flower
    (I heard that) they said to me the same thing as Sewa (Flower) had said to them.

For using a relative clause attributively, attaching it to an external noun, like relative clauses in English, the Attributive Role ⟪l-⟫ must be used instead of a core noun case consonant:

  • Unıʎú kacʰól laıkıneyı̋čal kaoθıtuyálı.
    U=      nı-   ʎú  k-  a-   cʰól
    ASR.REC=1:ERG-go  ACC-NTRᵢ-building
    l-  aı= kı-   ne-   yı̋čal
    ATR-REL=2:ERG-1:DAT-assert
    k-  ao= θı-     tu-     yálı
    ACC-DCS=EXO:ACC-RSM:ACC-inhabit
    (I recall that) I went to the building which you told me that they inhabit.

Plain (declarative) content clauses

Content clauses, unlike relative clauses, do not involve any resumptive pronoun, and the referent of a content clause is the whole of its content, and not just one single element within it. Plain, declarative content clauses, opened by the subordinator ⟪-ao-⟫ (glossed DCS), represent the abstract proposition described by the clause, corresponding to the non-relative use of the ⟪that⟫ subordinator in English, as in the sentence ⟪I know that you know⟫.

  • Inıráyu kaoleršı̋.
    ı=      nı-   ráyu  k-  ao= le- ršı̋
    ASR;SEN=1:ERG-wish  ACC-DCS=FUT-rain
    I wish that it will rain.

Another kind of content clause is the ‘polarity clause’, opened by the subordinator ⟪-ea-⟫ (glossed PCS), corresponding to the English ⟪whether⟫, is used for embedded polar interrogative clauses:

  • Mıkıtʰú kealeršı̋ saháoye.
    mı=kı-   tʰú       k-   ea= le- ršı̋
    PQ=2:ERG-deem_true ACC-PCS=FUT-rain
    s-  a-   háoye LOC-NTRᵢ-today
    Do you know whether it will rain today?

Template clauses

Template clauses are similar to content clauses but contain ‘blanks’, parts that have been abstracted away, similarly to blanks in a form, ready to be filled in. A template clause defines a predicate, and each ‘blank’ corresponds to one of the argument slots of the predicate. Each such blank or slot is represented by a so-called ‘lambda pronoun’ (named after lambda calculus). There is one vocalic morpheme for each predicate valency, and each valency has its own set of lambda pronouns. Like other Nahaıwa pronominals, the lambda pronouns are extensional prefixes, with a variable vowel representing an Inner Case, represented as ⟪◈⟫ in the table below:

┌────────────────────────────┬─────┬────────────────────┐  
│ Function                   │ V   │ Lambda pronoun set │  
├────────────────────────────┼─────┼────────────────────┤  
│ Unary Template Clause      │ oı  │ tʼ◈                │  
│ Binary Template Clause     │ oa  │ cʼ◈, kʼ◈           │  
│ Ternary Template Clause    │ eʼe │ cʼ◈, pʼ◈, kʼ◈      │  
│ Quaternary Template Clause │ oʼo │ cʼ◈, pʼ◈, čʼ◈, kʼ◈ │  
└────────────────────────────┴─────┴────────────────────┘

It is noteworthy that the consonant of the lambda pronominals is the ejective version fo the consonant of corresponding outer case's consonantal morpheme.

Ternary and Quaternary template clauses are rare in usage. Unary (monovalent) templates define a monovalent predicate, with a single argument. These are also called ‘properties’. Binary (bivalent) templates define bivalent predicates, with two arguments; these are also called ‘bivalent relations’, or ‘binary relations’ (relating the two arguments together).

Most of the time, template clauses are used as arguments for so-called higher-order predicates, i.e. predicates which take other abstract predicates as arguments. In the dictionary, when an argument slot expects one of these, the words “property” and “relation” are used in the definition, depending on the required valency.

  • Inıkeyéwa koıtʼınepákı.
    ı=      nı-   ke-   yéwa
    ASR;SEN=1:ERG-2:DAT-grateful
    k-  oı= tʼı-        ne-   pákı
    ACC-UTC=NTR_LAM:ERG-1:DAT-help
    I am grateful to you for having helped me.
    ————
    ⸨Here, NTR_LAM represents the Intransitive Case Lambda pronominal -tʼ◈-, governed by the unary template subordinator -oı-.⸩

  • Aŋkıpθú koacʼıtʰú kaoθıkʼutwá.
    a=      ŋkı-   pθú   
    ASR;INF=12:ERG-differ
    k-  oa= cʼı-        tʰú
    ACC-BTC=ERG_LAM:ERG-deem_true
    k-  ao= θı-     kʼu-        twá
    ACC-DCS꞊EXO:ERG-ACC_LAM:ACC-intend
    We (me+you) differ in what we think he intends to do.
    ————
    ⸨Here, ERG_LAM and ACC_LAM respectively represent the Ergative Case Lambda pronominal -cʼ◈- and the Accusative Case Lambda -kʼ◈-, both governed by the binary template subordinator -oa-.⸩